Tag: returns

  • How to Value a Company And Find The Best To Invest?

    How to Value a Company And Find The Best To Invest?

    How to Value a Company?
    For investors, company valuation is a crucial part of determining the potential return on investment. Start by looking at the value of the company’s assets. 

    One of the most confusing questions for all beginners in the market is how to value a company. The worth of the companies is important for every investor. And the question of how to value a company has a sense for any investor, entrepreneur, employee,  and for any size company. Thus, you have to find the best way to determine the worth of the company. Do you need to ask to see the company’s books or you can value a company based on the existing customers or news? How much time will it take to learn how to value a company? When you notice some interesting companies where to go first? Yes, you can ask in many ways how to value a company.

    The first comes first.

    For every investor, the value of a company is a crucial part of determining the potential returns on investment. Every investor should know if the company is fair valued, undervalued, or overvalued because it has a great impact on a company’s stock or stock options. 

    For example,  a higher valuation might indicate the options will grow in value.

    So, if you want to know how to value a company, be prepared to take into consideration a lot of the company’s attributes. This includes revenue and profitability growth, stage of growth, operating experience, technology, commodity, business plans. Yes, but the list isn’t full without market sentiment, growth rate, overall economic circumstances, etc.
    To understand how to value a company in a simple way, you can take a few factors into account. 

    What metrics to use to value the companies?

    Here is how to value a company and basic metrics you can use for that. You can use the P/B ratio and P/E ratio. These two metrics are important when you want to evaluate the company’s stock. These basic metrics you can apply to almost all types of companies. But it is important to know the other and often unique factors that can affect the process of how to value a company.

    One of the variables in the valuation of a company’s health is debt. But a company’s debt is not continually easy to measure or define. So this metric can make the company’s value difficult to value.

    When you want to value a company or stock, it is smart to use the market approach that includes a comparative analysis of precedent transactions and the discounted cash flow which is a form of intrinsic valuation since it is a detailed approach, and also uses an income approach.

    How to value a company’s stock?

    There are several methods that may give you insight into the value of companies’ stocks. 

    They are the market approach, the cost approach, and the income approach. The cost approach means that a buyer will buy a share of stock for no more than a stock of equal value. The market approach is based on the belief that in free markets, supply and demand will push the price of a stock to a point where the number of buyers and sellers match. The income approach defines value as the net current value of a company’s future free cash flows.

    Market value as a method on how to value a company

    The market value is simple. It represents the shares trade for but tells us nothing about stock’s intrinsic value. Thus, we have to know the stock’s true worth. This is a key part of value investing.
    The stock value is shown in stock price. The P/E ratio is helpful to understand this value. To calculate the P/E ratio just divide the price of a stock by its earnings per share

    When the P/E ratio is high it is a signal for higher earnings for investors. This ratio is helpful to use if you want to know how to value a company. The P/E ratio shows the company’s possible future growth rate. But you should be careful when using the P/E ratio to compare similar companies in the same sector.
    Investors connect value to stocks with P/E ratios. If the average P/E ratio is, for example, 20 – 23 times any P/E ratio above 23 times earnings is classified as a company that investors keep in high 

    Investors and traders use the P/B ratio to compare the book value of a stock to stock’s market value. To calculate the P/B ratio use the most recent book value per share and divide the current closing price of a stock by it. If the P/B ratio is low you can be sure the company is undervalued. This metric is very useful if you want to have accurate data on the intrinsic value of the company.

    But be aware, there are several P/E ratios and numerous variations, thus you have to know which one is in play. For more about this READ HERE

    Cost approach or book value

    Book value is the amount of all of a company’s tangible assets (for example equipment) after you deduct depreciation. So, when we are talking about the company’s “net capital value” it means the book value, estimated by the company’s book of net tangible assets over its book of liabilities. To calculate the book value you have to divide the net capital value by the number of outstanding shares. The result is a per-share value. The book value never takes into account the brand, keep that in mind.

    Income as a method on how to value a company

    Use the capitalized cash flow to calculate a company’s worth when future income is expected to stay the same as it was in the past. But if you expect the income is going to vary, use the discounted cash flow method.

    Calculations are simple, divide the result from capitalized cash flow or discounted cash flow by the number of shares outstanding and the figure you get is the price per share.

    Bottom line

    By understanding how to value a company you’ll be able to understand the essence of making investment decisions. No matter if you want to sell, or buy, or hold the shares of stock in some company. Warren Buffett, for example, uses a discounted cash-flow analysis.
    Sometimes, the company valuation is held as the market capitalization. So, to know the value of the company you have to multiply all shares outstanding by the price per share. For instance, a company’s price per share is $10 and the number of outstanding shares is 4 million. If we multiply the price per share by the number of shares outstanding we will find this company is 40 million worth.

    To be honest, it isn’t too hard to value the public company. But when it comes to private companies it can be a bit harder. You can be faced with a lack of information. For example startups. They don’t have a financial track record and you have to value these companies based on the expectation of future growth. To value an early-stage company can be a great challenge. 

    Before you invest in any company, you’ll need to determine its value. This is important because you need to know if it is worth your time and money. Think about the company’s value as its selling price. Maybe it is the simplest way.

  • What Is Options Trading Examples

    What Is Options Trading Examples

    What Is Options Trading?
    In options trading, the underlying asset can be stocks, commodities, futures, index, currencies. The option of stock gives the right to buy or sell the stock at a definite price and specified date. 

    By Guy Avtalyon

    Before we explain deeper: what is options trading, we need to understand why we should trade options at all. If you think it something fancy, you couldn’t be more wrong. Actually, the origin of options trading came from ancient times. For example, Ancient Greeks were speculating on the price of olives before harvest and traded according to that. When someone asks you: what is options trading and argues that it belongs to modern stock brokerages just tell such one about trading olives. 

    From the first day of trade existence, people were trying to guess the price of food or some item they wanted to buy. 

    What is options trading?

    We have a simple example to answer the question: “ What is options trading.”

    Let’s say we want to buy a stock at $10.000. But the broker tells us that we can buy that stock at $20 and the time is limited so we have to make our decision in a short time frame but we don’t know “ what is options trading.” This broker’s offer means that we have to pay $20 now and get a right to buy the stock after one month. Well, our right, in this case, obligates the seller to sell us that stock at $10.000 even if the price increases in value after one month. This $200 will stay in the broker’s account forever. We will never get it back. But we got the right to buy the stock at the price we are willing to pay. 

    How does options trading work?

    We understand there is a chance that the stock price will increase much over $10.200, we want to pay our broker an extra $200 to provide us the right to buy the stock at $10.000. Moreover, we saved the rest of our $10.000 so we can keep it or invest in something else while waiting for the end of the period.

    Okay, the end is here, the one-month period is over so what is the next? Well, we have the right to buy that stock at $10.000 and we noticed the price is much over that amount. Of course, we will buy it at the agreed price. But what to do if the price is below the guessed price? Remember, we have the RIGHT to BUY not OBLIGATION. So, we can buy or not depending on the stock price. 

    This is a very simple explanation on the question: What is options trading, but this is the essence. 

    The options are derivatives. That means their prices are derived from something else, frequently from stocks. The price of an option is connected to the price of the underlying stock. Options trading is possible with the stocks, bonds market, and ETFs, and the like.

    What are the advantages of options trading?

    Some investors are avoiding options because they believe they are hard to understand. Yes, they can be if your broker has a lack of knowledge about them. Of course, you can have less than need knowledge about options trading. But the truth is, it isn’t hard to learn because this kind of trading provides a lot of advantages. Keep in mind that options are a powerful tool so use them with the necessary diligence to avoid major problems.

    Sometimes, we think that characteristics like “critical” or “unsafe” are unfairly connected to the options. But when you have all the information about options you’ll be able to make a proper decision.

    Cost less

    One of the most important advantages of options trading is it will cost you less. Let’s see how it is possible.

    Yes, we know that some people will claim that buying options are riskier than holding stocks. But we want to show you how to use options and reduce risk. Hopefully, you will understand that all depend on how you will use them.

    First of all, we don’t need as much financial assurance as equities require. Further, options are relatively immune to the possible effects of gap openings. But the most important, options are the most dependable form a hedge. Are they safer than stocks though? Yes! 

    Lower risk

    Let’s say this way. When we are trading stocks, we have to set a stop-loss order to protect our position. We are the one who has to determine the price at which we are not willing to lose more. And here is the problem. Stops are designed to be executed when stocks trade at or below the limit we set. So, what if we place a stop-loss order at, for example, $36 for the stock we bought at $40. We don’t want to lose more than 10% on that stock. Our stop-loss order will become a market order and our stock will be sold when the price reaches $36 or less. This is how this order will work during the trading day but what can happen over the night? 

    How to use options as a hedge?

    Here is where the problems arise. Let’s say we closed stock at $38. Almost immediately after the opening bell, the next morning, due to the bad morning news about the company, our stock fell under $15. So that will be the price we’ll get for our stock. We’ll be locked in a great loss. The stop-loss order did nothing for us. If we bought the options as protection instead, we wouldn’t have such a great loss since the options never shut down after the closing bell. We would have insurance 24/7. 

    Can you understand how the options are a more dependable form of hedging?

    And as an additional choice to buying the stock, we could employ the stock replacement strategy. This means we would buy an in-the-money call instead of buying the stock. We have a lot of possibilities with options trading since the options mimic almost 85% of a stock’s performance. The benefit is that they cost 25% of the price of the stock. For example, if we bought an option at $25 instead of a stock at $100, our loss will be limited on that amount, not on the stock price. 

    Do options have higher returns?

    We don’t need to be a great mathematician (well, some of us are, that’s true) to understand that if we pay less and take the same profit, we have higher returns. That is exactly what options trading provides us. 

    Let’s analyze this part and compare the returns in both cases.

    For example, we bought a stock for, let’s say $100. You bought an option of that stock at $25. This stock has a delta of 70, so the option’s price will change 70% of the stock’s price movement. (This is a made-up example, please keep that in mind.)
    So, the stock price goes up for $10, and our position on this stock will give us 10% of the return. You bought an option and your position will give you 70% of the stock change (delta is 70, remember?) which is $7. 

    Do you understand?

    We paid the same stock $100, you paid $25.
    Our return on that stock is 10% which is $10; your gain on investment of $25 is $7 which is a 28% return on investment. Who made a better job?

    Of course, when the trade goes against you, options can impose heavy losses. There is a chance to lose your entire investment.

    Benefits of options trading

    Options trading can be a great addition to your existing investing strategy. They will give you leverage in your investing. You will have cheaper exposure to the stocks, increasing profits and losses when the stock price changes. One of the benefits is that options can reduce the risk in the overall portfolio. For example, a protective put trade. That is when you combine purchasing a put option to sell stock at a specified price. That will provide you the upside when the stock price rises but also, that will protect you from losses when the stock price drops. Also, you can earn by selling the options. You will receive the money even if the stock isn’t exercised. That is compensation for giving someone else the right to buy your stock but that one never did it. You’ll keep the money anyway.

    Bottom line

    Options offer more investment options. They are highly adjustable vehicles. You can use options for positions synthetics. But it is for advanced traders.
    But there are some extreme risks to options. Firstly, options can expire worthlessly. That will be a complete loss of whatever you paid for the options. Further, options are highly volatile. Many brokerages will offer options trading, but with some added requirements before they will let you trade options. 

    Also, speaking about options strategies, they will work well when you make many trades simultaneously. You have to know that options markets aren’t constantly liquid as the stock market. The simultaneous trades don’t always go ideally. So, your strategy may not work the way you expected. Many online brokerages will give you access to options trading with low commission costs. So, we all can use this powerful tool. But, take some time to learn how to use options accurately. It is still new for individual investors. 

    We’re doing smart trading.

  • How to Survive the Market Downturn?

    How to Survive the Market Downturn?

    How to Survive the Market Downturn?
    The global uncertainty due to the coronavirus outbreak forces investors to a smart allocation. Avoid companies with high debt, stay focused on the sustainability of earnings.

    By Guy Avtalyon

    How to survive the market downturn? We heard so many investors asking this. Boosting the concerns were profit warnings from the companies in Europe, the US, and all over the world. Everyone is talking that a key earnings target would take longer to meet. The reason is the coronavirus outbreak adds uncertainty in the main markets. Many well-known large companies plunged and had to mute growth for this year due to the COVID-19 outbreak. We are sure you are following what’s going one with that and also, we hope you are following WHO’s advice to protect yourselves.

    Our concern is how to survive the market downturn, what investors have to do now when the markets are down.

    Financial pandemic

    Asia Pacific markets dropped today (February, 28) due to fears about the coronavirus. These fears continue to urge a global sell-off.
    Japan’s Nikkei 225 dropped more than 3% in today’s morning trading. South Korea’s Kospi and Australia’s S&P/ASX 200  fell more than 2% each.
    Hong Kong’s Hang Seng fell 2.7%, while the Shanghai Composite fell 3.4%.
    Also, we have a historic plunge in the markets in the US. Three major US indexes slipped into correction territory on Thursday. The S&P 500 had the worst day since 2011. The Dow sank 1,191 points, which is a drop of 4.4%. This was the worst one-day point drop in its history.
    Coronavirus appears as a ‘financial pandemic’.  The global oil benchmarks, US crude, and Brent crude fell Thursday lower by 3.4% and 2.3%.
    Even China search giant Baidu warned that revenue could fall as much as 13% in the first quarter and its core business could fall by 18% compared to the same time last year.

    How to survive the market downturn?

    So, the coronavirus has continued to spread, the stock market has started to feel the uncertainty. No one knows how this situation could affect companies over the world. Or investors. This epidemic like any other came suddenly and caused a shock to the global economy. As always, this situation lead (and it did) to great changes in the stock markets. Investors’ fears became a truth. And also, this led to panic selling.

    What a great mistake!

    Why do we think it is a great mistake? Okay, we all want our wealth to grow, not to vanish. These stock market ups and downs are hard to look at for all of us. That’s why it is so easy to be caught in emotions.

    Investors are frightened and worried and that can lead to panic. And panic can lead to quick and imprudent sellings. We want to help you to avoid this mistake that may cost you very much.

    Let’s take a look at an example that may help you to learn how to keep your hands off your investments. Especially now with a major market slide. Let’s say you entered this year with $100.000 in your investments. But it is the end of February and the stock market is dropping (You have the last data above) and let’s say, you already lost $10.000. Can you afford to lose an extra $10.000 if the market continues to fall? So, how to survive the market downturn? If you want to survive this storm your first thought might be to sell off, for example, mutual funds and move into the money market. That’s a mistake, that’s wrong. Don’t do that! The stock market can rebound. Yes, it will take a few months till then, at least two, but when it does that you’ll be able to recover your losses and gain more. So, don’t keep your money on the sidelines. Investors that did such a thing extremely regretted it.

    Try to separate your emotions from the investment decisions. One day, very soon, whatever looks like a disaster now, can be just a twinkle in your investing history. 

    How to survive the market downturn by keeping fears under control?

    Do you know a saying on Wall Street? It is something like: The Dow climbs a wall of worry. What does this saying want to tell us? Dow Jones will continue to rise despite economic downturns, pandemics, natural disasters, or any other catastrophes. That’s why we have to keep our emotions under control, our fears in check. This market correction just looks like a massive disaster but it is just one short period in the market’s cycle. 

    Well, how to tell you this? When some economic slowdown appears it is so normal for the stock market to go negative. For long-term investors that means nothing. They bought their shares at a low price when the market was down. So, consider if there is a buying opportunity. Always keep in mind the old maxim “buy low and sell high”.

    Reexamine your portfolio and your investment strategy instead of panic. Choose to be strategic with actions.

    What are the benefits of a declining stock market?

    The market is down, so what? Will it be a market correction? No one knows. What do we have to do? To stick to our investment plan and goals. Don’t damage your portfolio. 

    Investors turn into stocks when the market approaches new highs. When the market drops they are running away. So, what are they doing? Buying high, selling low? The consequence is that they have poor returns. Can you see the problem? It doesn’t have to be like that. Some investors know how to benefit from the market drop, how to survive the market downturn.

    Ways to survive the market downturn

    Firstly, they know how to recognize the problem, meaning they understand the essence of investing. With that knowledge, it is more possible to avoid unfavorable investment performance. So, learn! 

    If we sell out of fear when the market is down, we are actually generating minimal returns. At least, we should think about this before executing a trade on such occasions. The next step is to change our mentality, the way we think. For example, we all like when the price of electricity goes down, right? But we are not excited when the stock price is going down. Here is the catch! 

    How can money go further?

    It can be achieved if we buy more shares since the prices are lower. We can buy more shares even if the amount of money we planned for that stays the same. So, our money will go extra. Further, we can reinvest dividends. That can be a notable portion of our returns. We found some studies that show the dividends added 5 percentage points of the entire 7.9% returns of stocks. These studies cover the period from 1802 to 2002. So, if we want better returns we need to reinvest dividends.

    One of the benefits of a declining market is a chance to sell high and buy low but through rebalancing. This means we have to sell winning assets, the assets that increased in value, and provide money to buy assets at a lower price but with a good future perspective.

    Typically, bonds are better players in everyone’s portfolios, so sell them and go into stock funds. Analysts revealed that this only step in rebalancing can increase risk-adjusted returns, even up by 21%.

    Is the dropping market a good experience?

    A dropping market provides us priceless experience. Don’t underestimate this. That new knowledge will give us a valuable answer on how to survive the market downturn in the future. At least, we’ll be able to understand how we manage our emotions. That can be the core of our future investment goals. If we feel uncertainty about every small change in stock price, we should go into a safer investment. Maybe stocks are not for us. But if we enter the fight and end up with more winners, only the sky’s the limit. 

    We don’t like to guess if this will be a market correction or not. No one can do that, whoever tells that can predict the next stock market move, lies. We don’t know.  All we know is that the best way is to stay in your investment plan. This is smart trading!

  • Calculate Portfolio Performance

    Calculate Portfolio Performance

    Calculate Portfolio Performance
    Don’t base the success of your investment portfolio on returns alone. Use these three sets of measurement tools to calculate portfolio performance.

    The main goal to calculate portfolio performance is to measure the value created by the investor’s risk management. The majority of investors will judge the success of their portfolios based on returns. But it isn’t enough. To have a sense of how our investment portfolio is well-diversified and how much risk we take we need to calculate portfolio performance. In other words, we need a measure of both risk and return in the portfolio to judge its success. Until the 1960s no one paid attention to the risks involved in obtaining returns. But today we have several ways to calculate portfolio performance and measure it. 

    Our aim is to present you with these valuable tools. 

    Sharpe, Jensen and Treynor ratios pair risk and return performances, and unite them into unique value. Well, each of them operates a bit differently so we can choose one to calculate portfolio performance or mix all three ratios.

    Calculate Portfolio Performance Using Sharpe Ratio

    Sharpe ratio is the measure of risk-adjusted return of an investment portfolio. Or in other words, by calculating it we can find a measure of excess return over the risk-free rate relative to its standard deviation. It is common to use the 90-day Treasury bill rate as the representative for the risk-free rate. This ratio is named after William F Sharpe. He is a Nobel laureate and professor of finance, emeritus at Stanford University.

    The formula is:

    ​Sharpe ratio= (PR−RFR) / SD

    ​In this formula, PR represents the expected portfolio return, RFR is the risk-free rate, while SD represents a portfolio’s standard deviation which is a measure for risk. Standard deviation reveals the variation of returns from the average return. So we can say that if the standard deviation is great, the risk involved is also great. 

    So, you can see how the Sharpe ratio is simple to calculate since it has only 3 variables. 

    But let’s calculate portfolio performance more realistic. For example, our portfolio has a 20% rate return. The whole market scored 15%. So, we may think that our portfolio is greater than the market, right? But it isn’t a proper opinion. How is that? Well, we didn’t calculate the risk we had to take to earn such a great rate return. What if we took much more risk than we thought. That would mean that our portfolio isn’t optimal. Let’s go further in this analysis. Imagine that our portfolio has a standard deviation of 15% and the overall market has 8%, and the risk-free rate is 3%. This is just a random example. Let’s calculate portfolio performance now using the Sharp ratio formula.

    Sharp ratio for our portfolio: (20 – 3) / 15 = 1.13

    and

    Sharp ratio for the market: (15 – 3) / 8 = 1.5

    Can you see now?

    While our portfolio scored more than the overall market, our Sharpe Ratio was notably less. So, our portfolio with a lower Sharpe Ratio was a less optimal portfolio even though the return was higher. This means we took an excess risk without extra bonus. But it isn’t the same case when it comes to the overall market, it is actually the opposite. When the market has a higher Sharpe ratio, it has a higher risk-adjusted return. The best portfolio is not the portfolio with the highest return. Rather, an excellent portfolio has a higher risk-adjusted return.

    Sharpe ratio is more suitable for well-diversified portfolios because it more correctly considers the risks of the portfolio. 

    Jensen ratio

    The Jensen ratio gauges how much of the portfolio’s rate of return is attributable to our capability to produce returns above average, and adjusted for market risk. 

    The Jensen ratio measures the excess return that a portfolio produces over the expected return. This figure of return is also recognized as alpha. Let’s say that our portfolio has positive excess returns, so it has a positive alpha. On the other hand, a portfolio with a negative excess return has a negative alpha.

    The formula is:

    Jenson’s alpha = PR−CAPM

    Here, PR stands for portfolio return and CAPM is risk-free rate+β( beta). We know that beta is the return of the market risk-free rate of return.

    ​By using Jensen’s alpha formula we can calculate an investment’s risk-adjusted value. It is also known as Jensen’s Performance Index or ex-post alpha. Jensen’s alpha tries to determine the unusual return of a portfolio no matter what assets it consists of. This formula was first introduced by the economist Michael Jensen. Investors use this formula to calculate portfolio performance by enabling them to discover if an asset’s average return is adequate to its risks.

    Regularly, the higher the risk, the greater the expected return. So, that’s why evaluating risk-adjusted performance is especially important for making investment decisions. It will allow doing this. 

    This Jensen’s alpha also can be expressed as 

    Jensen’s alpha = Portfolio return – ((Risk-Free Rate + Portfolio Beta x (Market Return – Risk-Free Rate))

    The alpha figure can be positive or negative. When it is higher positive values that suggest better performance in comparison to expectations while negative rates showed that the assets perform below expectations. Jensen’s alpha is expressed in percentages. 

    Let’s take the example of a stock with a return per day based on CAPM. And we see that it is 0.20% but the real stock return is 0.25%. So, Jensen’s alpha is 0.05%. Is it a good indicator? Yes, you can be sure.

    The purpose of this measure is to help investors to go for assets that grant maximum returns but with minimum risks.

    For example, you found two stocks that are offering similar returns. But one with less risk would be more profitable for investors than the one with greater risk. When calculating Jensen’s alpha you would like to see a positive alpha since that indicates an abnormal return.

    Treynor ratio

    The Treynor ratio is very useful to calculate portfolio performance. It is a measure that uses portfolio beta,  a measure of systematic risk. That is different from the Sharpe Ratio that adjusts return with the standard deviation. 

    This ratio represents a quotient of return divided by risk. The Treynor Ratio is named after Jack Treynor, the economist, and developer of the Capital Asset Pricing Model.

    The formula is expressed as:

    Treynor ratio = (PR−RFR) / β

    The symbols are well-known, PR stands for portfolio return, RFR refers to the risk-free rate and β is portfolio beta.

    We can see that this ratio takes into account both the return of the portfolio and the portfolio’s systematic risk. From a mathematical viewpoint, this formula expresses the quantity of excess return from the risk-free rate per unit of systematic risk. And just like the Sharpe ratio, it is a return/risk ratio.

    Let’s assume we would like to compare two portfolios. One is the equity portfolio and the other is the fixed-income portfolio. How can we decide which is a better investment? Treynor Ratio will help us pick the better one.

    To put this simply, assume for the purpose of this article only, the equity portfolio has a total return of 9%, while the fixed-income portfolio has a return of 7%. Also, the proxy for the risk-free rate is 3%. Further, let’s suppose that the beta of the equity portfolio is 1.5, while the fixed-income portfolio has a beta of 1.25

    Let’s calculate for each portfolio!

    Treynor ratio for a equity portfolio = (9% – 3%) / 1.5 = 0.040 

    Treynor ratio for a fixed-income portfolio = (7% – 3%) / 1.25 = 0.032

    So, the Treynor ratio of the equity portfolio is higher which means a more favorable risk/return option. Since the Treynor ratio is based on past performance it is possible not to be repeated in the future. But you will not rely on just one ratio when making an investment decision. You have to use other metrics too.

    For the Treynor ratio, it is important to know that the negative value of beta will not give exact figures. Also, while comparing two portfolios this ratio will not show the importance of the difference of the values. For instance, if the Treynor ratio of one portfolio is 0.4 and for the other 0.2, the first isn’t surely double better.

    Bottom line

    To calculate portfolio performance we have to determine how our portfolio has performed relative to some benchmark. Performance calculation and evaluation methods fall into two categories, conventional and risk-adjusted. The most popular conventional methods combine benchmark and style comparison. The risk-adjusted methods are focused on returns. They count the differences in risk levels between our portfolio and the benchmark portfolio. The main methods are the Sharpe ratio, Treynor ratio, Jensen’s alpha. But there are many other methods too.

    But one is sure, portfolio performance calculations are a key part of the investment decision. Keep in mind, portfolio returns are just a part of the whole process. If we never evaluate the risk-adjusted returns, we will never have the whole picture. That could lead to wrong decisions and losses, literally.

Traders-Paradise